Ein im Solarwechselrichter integrierter SPD kann einen wichtigen Überspannungsschutz bieten, aber die Angabe “DC Typ II SPD” im Datenblatt bedeutet nicht automatisch, dass die gesamte PV-Anlage geschützt ist.

Manchmal lautet die Spezifikation sogar:

Integrierter DC- und AC-SPD vom Typ II

Auf den ersten Blick scheint die Schlussfolgerung offensichtlich:

“Der Wechselrichter verfügt bereits über einen Überspannungsschutz. Warum sollte ich einen weiteren SPD installieren?”

Dann betrachtet man einen PV-Generatoranschlusskasten und findet darin einen weiteren DC-SPD.

Oder ein Installateur weist darauf hin, dass ein zusätzlicher SPD in der Nähe des PV-Generators installiert werden sollte.

Nun wird die Frage verwirrend.

Erfüllen zwei Überspannungsschutzgeräte (SPD) dieselbe Aufgabe?

Ist das externe SPD unnötig?

Oder schützt das im Wechselrichter integrierte SPD nur einen Teil der PV-Anlage?

Schnelle Antwort

Ein eingebautes DC-SPD bedeutet nicht automatisch, dass kein externes SPD erforderlich ist.

Die tatsächliche Antwort hängt davon ab:

• welcher SPD-Typ tatsächlich im Wechselrichter verbaut ist;
• ob es auf der DC-Seite, der AC-Seite oder auf beiden Seiten installiert ist;
• der Abstand zwischen dem PV-Generator und dem Wechselrichter;
• ob ein PV-Generatoranschlusskasten verwendet wird;
• ob das Gebäude über ein äußeres Blitzschutzsystem verfügt;
• ob der erforderliche Trennungsabstand eingehalten werden kann;
• und was der Wechselrichterhersteller sowie die geltenden Projektanforderungen vorgeben.

Die entscheidende Frage lautet daher nicht:

“Hat mein Wechselrichter einen SPD?”

Eine bessere Frage ist:

“Wo befindet sich der SPD, welchen Teil des Systems schützt er und was geschieht, bevor ein Überspannungsereignis diesen Punkt erreicht?”

Dieser Perspektivwechsel macht das Thema wesentlich leichter verständlich.

Integrierter SPD: Was er Ihnen sagt – und was nicht

Wenn Sie ein Datenblatt eines Wechselrichters lesen, sind die Worte “integrierter SPD” zwar nützliche Informationen, aber sie verraten Ihnen nicht alles, was Sie wissen müssen.

Dies ist die erste praktische Lektion:

Die Angabe “SPD” in einem Wechselrichter-Datenblatt ist nur der erste Schritt. Überprüfen Sie den SPD-Typ, ob er auf der DC- oder AC-Seite installiert ist und wie seine tatsächlichen technischen Spezifikationen lauten.

30-sekündige Überprüfung des SPD-Etiketts

Bevor wir über integrierte Wechselrichter-Überspannungsschutzgeräte (SPD) sprechen, lassen Sie uns kurz ein echtes DC-SPD-Etikett überprüfen.

Können Sie die Schlüsselwerte auf diesem echten KUANGYA 1000V Typ 2 DC-Überspannungsschutzgerät (SPD) identifizieren?

1. Welcher Wert gibt die maximale Dauerspannung dieses DC-SPD an?

Up: 3,5kV Uc: 1000Vdc Imax: 40kA In: 20kA

Richtige Antwort: Uc: 1000Vdc

Uc gibt die maximale Dauerspannung an, für die dieses SPD ausgelegt ist.

2. Welcher Wert gibt den maximalen Ableitstrom dieses Typ 2 SPD an?

Uc: 1000Vdc Up: 3,5kV Imax: 40kA EN/IEC 61643-11

Richtige Antwort: Imax: 40kA

Imax ist der maximale Ableitstrom, dem der Typ-2-Überspannungsschutz unter seinen spezifizierten Testbedingungen standhalten kann.

Welcher Wert gibt das Spannungsbegrenzungsniveau an?

In: 20kA Up: 3,5kV Uc: 1000Vdc KYPV/1000

Richtige Antwort: Up: 3,5kV

Up ist das Spannungsbegrenzungsniveau. Es gibt die Spannung an, die an den Anschlüssen des Überspannungsschutzes verbleiben kann, während dieser einen Stoßstrom begrenzt.

Unsicher bezüglich dieser Kennzeichnungen?

Unser vorheriger Leitfaden erläutert Uc, In, Imax, Up und andere DC-SPD-Kennwerte im Detail.

So lesen Sie ein DC-SPD-Etikett: Klasse II, Ucpv, In, Imax, Up & Iscpv erklärt →

Erneut versuchen

Was schützt ein in einen Solarwechselrichter integrierter SPD tatsächlich?

Ein integrierter DC-SPD bedeutet normalerweise, dass der Überspannungsschutz auf der DC-Eingangsseite des Wechselrichters integriert wurde.

Aber Wechselrichter-Designs sind nicht alle gleich.

Einige Hersteller installieren standardmäßig einen Schutz vom Typ 2.

Einige Produkte verfügen über einen Schutz sowohl auf der DC- als auch auf der AC-Seite.

Einige gewerbliche Modelle verwenden einen Schutz vom Typ 1+2 auf der DC-Seite.

Einige Wechselrichterplattformen ermöglichen es, den Überspannungsschutz (SPD) vorinstalliert zu bestellen oder nachträglich nachzurüsten.

Dies bedeutet, dass Sie immer das genaue Wechselrichtermodell, überprüfen sollten, anstatt davon auszugehen, dass jeder Wechselrichter eines Herstellers dieselbe Schutzanordnung verwendet.

Ein nützliches Wechselrichterhandbuch oder Datenblatt sollte Ihnen helfen, mehrere Dinge zu identifizieren:

Befindet sich der SPD auf der DC-Seite oder der AC-Seite?

Dies ist grundlegend.

Das PV-Generatorfeld speist den Wechselrichter über die DC-Seite.

Der Wechselrichter wird über die AC-Seite an das Verteilungssystem angeschlossen.

Ein AC-Überspannungsschutzgerät (SPD) wird nicht allein dadurch zum DC-seitigen Schutz, dass es im selben Wechselrichtergehäuse installiert ist.

Welcher SPD-Typ ist installiert?

Suchen Sie nach:

• Typ 1
• Typ 2
• Typ 1+2

Sie sind sich unsicher, wie sich diese Typen unterscheiden? Sehen Sie sich unsere Vergleich von Typ 1 vs. Typ 2 vs. Typ 1+2 DC-SPD.

Ersetzen Sie diese Frage nicht durch:

“Welches hat den höchsten kA-Wert?”

Der SPD-Typ gibt eine andere Information an als die Nennableitstoßstromstärke.

Is the SPD replaceable?

This is especially important for maintenance.

Some integrated SPDs use replaceable modules or cartridges. Others require specific service procedures.

Fronius, for example, states in its Verto documentation that when the SPD has operated, its mechanical indicator changes from green to red and the triggered SPD must be replaced to maintain the full protective function.

So “built-in” does not mean “maintenance-free forever.”

Real Inverters Show Why “Built-In SPD” Is Not One Standard Configuration

Anstatt hypothetische Wechselrichterspezifikationen zu erfinden, betrachten wir einige reale Produkte und deren offiziell veröffentlichte Dokumentation.

Praxisbeispiele für Wechselrichter

These examples are useful because they show something that a generic statement like “modern inverters have SPD” cannot explain.

Different real inverters use different protection concepts.

For example, Sungrow’s current SG3.0RS-L product information specifies built-in Type II DC & AC SPD.

But Sungrow’s SG30CX-P2 and SG50CX-P2 datasheet lists DC Type I+II / AC Type II.

The conclusion is simple:

“My inverter has an SPD” is only the beginning of the conversation.

Check three things next:

What type is it?
DC side or AC side?
Where is it installed?

Why SPD Location Can Matter More Than SPD Quantity

A common way to think about surge protection is:

One SPD = protected
Two SPDs = more protected

That is not a good design principle.

Two SPDs installed at the wrong places do not automatically create better protection than one correctly positioned and coordinated system.

The better question is:

Where is the surge protective device in relation to the equipment and cable route that need protection?

Consider these two simplified systems.

System A

PV array → 4 m DC cable → inverter with built-in Type 2 SPD

System B

PV array → 35 m DC cable → building entry → inverter with built-in Type 2 SPD

The inverter may be exactly the same.

The built-in SPD may also be exactly the same.

But the installation is not the same.

In System B, a much longer outdoor DC cable exists between the PV array and the inverter.

That changes the surge-protection problem.

Why Does Cable Distance Matter?

PV systems often contain long conductors exposed across rooftops, facades, open ground or industrial buildings.

During nearby lightning activity, electromagnetic effects can induce transient overvoltages into those conductors.

A surge does not have to arrive only from the utility grid.

This means that long PV cable routes must be considered as part of the protection concept.

If the only SPD is located inside the inverter, that protective point is located at one end of the cable.

It does not physically move closer to the PV modules because the inverter manufacturer integrated it into the enclosure.

This is why published PV surge-protection guidance considers not only what SPD is used, but also where it is installed.

Phoenix Contact’s current PV guidance identifies the DC side of the inverter as an additional protection location when the cable length to the PV panels is 10 m or more, and also identifies another protection position near the PV panels or building entrance.

Its technical guidance also states that if the cable length between PV panels and inverter exceeds 10 m, an additional protection device should be installed at the other end of the cable near the PV panels.

DEHN publishes similar rooftop PV guidance, stating that if more than 10 m of cable exists between the PV system and inverter, a further arrester is required in the roof area for the arrangement it describes.

Does That Mean 10.1 m Always Requires Two SPDs Everywhere?

Nein.

This is where technical articles often become misleading.

Sie sollten nicht take “10 m” and turn it into a universal sentence such as:

“Every PV system longer than 10 meters must always have exactly two Type 2 SPDs.”

The actual design still depends on:

• applicable standards;
• local electrical requirements;
• external lightning protection;
• separation distance;
• system architecture;
• manufacturer instructions;
• and project specifications.

The useful lesson is simpler:

Around this distance, cable length stops being something you should ignore and becomes an important design consideration.

A Practical Distance Table

The important point is that distance affects location decisions, not merely product quantity.

What About a PV Combiner Box?

A Kombiniererkasten is another reason why you should inspect the whole PV system before ordering another SPD.

Imagine a project where the inverter datasheet says:

Built-in DC Type 2 SPD

A buyer may then request another external Type 2 SPD because they assume the array side has no protection.

But the project’s combiner box may already include:

• string fuses;
• DC isolator;
• DC SPD;
• monitoring;
• and other protective components.

In that situation, surge protection may already exist at more than one point.

So before buying another SPD, ask:

“Is there already an SPD inside the combiner box?”

This sounds obvious, but in real purchasing work, different components are often quoted by different suppliers.

The inverter may come from one manufacturer.

The combiner box comes from another.

The electrical protection devices come from a third.

A buyer looking only at individual product datasheets can easily lose sight of the complete single-line diagram.

External Lightning Protection Changes the Answer

Now consider a building with an external lightning protection system.

This can include:

• air terminals;
• lightning conductors;
• down conductors;
• bonding;
• and an earthing system designed as part of a lightning protection concept.

At this point, the question:

“Do I need one more Type 2 SPD?”

may be too simple.

One critical factor is whether the required separation distance between the PV installation and the external lightning protection system can be maintained.

Phoenix Contact’s current PV guidance distinguishes between systems:

1. without external lightning protection;
2. with external lightning protection where separation distance is maintained;
3. and with external lightning protection where separation distance is not maintained.

For the DC side, its published selection table shows Type 2 protection where separation distance is maintained, while Type 1 protection is specified for the relevant protection positions when separation distance is not maintained.

So if your building has external lightning protection, do not simply ask:

“Should I add another SPD?”

Fragen Sie:

“What lightning protection concept applies to this building, and can the required separation distance be maintained?”

That question is much more useful.

Built-In SPD vs External SPD

It is easy to assume that one must be better than the other.

That is not really the point.

Built-In SPD

Advantages can include:

• protection very close to inverter electronics;
• compact integration;
• shorter internal connections;
• easier equipment packaging;
• and, depending on the inverter design, monitoring or replaceable modules.

Its main limitation is obvious:

its location is fixed inside or directly at the inverter.

External SPD

An external SPD can be installed where the system design requires another protection point.

Typical locations include:

• PV combiner box;
• near the PV array;
• building entrance;
• external DC protection box;
• near the inverter;
• AC distribution board.

So instead of asking:

“Is an external SPD better than the inverter’s built-in SPD?”

ask:

“Which protection locations does this installation require, and which of those locations are already covered?”

That is the more professional question.

A Real Manufacturer Example: Why the SPD Is Part of a Larger Protection Concept

Fronius describes the SPD in its Verto documentation as contributing to the protection of PV system components as part of an overall lightning protection concept. It also specifies maintenance behavior: when the SPD has operated, the mechanical status indication changes from green to red and the device should be replaced to maintain protection.

This is an important practical idea.

The inverter’s SPD is not a magical shield around the entire PV installation.

It is one protective component inside a larger electrical protection concept.

That concept includes:

• surge protection;
• earthing;
• equipotential bonding;
• conductor routing;
• lightning protection where applicable;
• overcurrent protection;
• correct installation;
• and maintenance.

This is why the answer cannot come from one specification line alone.

Three Installation Scenarios

The following are illustrative installation scenarios, not claimed customer projects. They are designed to show how the same inverter specification can lead to different questions.

Scenario A: Small Residential Rooftop

System:

• residential rooftop PV;
• string inverter;
• built-in DC Type 2 SPD;
• PV array approximately 5 m from inverter;
• no external lightning protection system;
• no remote combiner box.

In this situation, it would be wrong to automatically say:

“You definitely need another external Type 2 SPD.”

Instead, check:

• the inverter manual;
• the built-in SPD specification;
• local requirements;
• earthing;
• actual cable routing;
• and whether another SPD is already present elsewhere.

A short and simple installation is very different from a large commercial rooftop.

Scenario B: Commercial Rooftop with a 35 m DC Cable Route

System:

• large PV array;
• remote combiner box;
• inverter room inside the building;
• approximately 35 m DC cable route;
• inverter includes DC Type 2 protection.

Now the situation is different.

The built-in SPD provides protection at the inverter end.

But there is a long DC route between the array and inverter.

This is precisely the type of installation where published manufacturer guidance about additional protection locations on long cable runs becomes relevant.

The correct question becomes:

“Is coordinated surge protection also required near the array or combiner box?”

Not:

“Does the inverter have an SPD?”

Scenario C: Rooftop PV with External Lightning Protection

System:

• commercial building;
• external lightning protection system;
• rooftop PV;
• inverter includes DC Type 2 protection.

Before deciding whether to add another Type 2 SPD, you need another piece of information:

Can the required separation distance be maintained?

If it cannot, the required protection concept may involve Type 1 protection at relevant locations rather than simply duplicating Type 2 devices. Phoenix Contact’s published PV guidance explicitly distinguishes these conditions.

The presence of a built-in Type 2 SPD therefore does not answer the whole lightning-protection question.

Does AC Type 2 SPD Protect the PV DC Side?

Nein.

This is one of the easiest misunderstandings to avoid.

A modern inverter may have:

DC SPD: Type II

und

AC SPD: Type II

because the DC and AC sides are separate electrical paths.

The PV array reaches the inverter through DC conductors.

The grid or AC distribution system connects through the inverter AC side.

Surges can reach equipment through different paths.

Real inverter datasheets demonstrate this separation clearly.

For example, Sungrow’s SG30CX-P2 / SG50CX-P2 specification lists the DC and AC surge protection separately: DC Type I+II / AC Type II.

That would make little sense if one SPD automatically protected both sides.

There Is Another Path People Forget: Communication Lines

Power cables are not the only conductors connected to modern PV systems.

An inverter may also use:

• RS-485;
• Ethernet;
• weather station connections;
• digital inputs;
• monitoring cables;
• control signals;
• power-management communication.

Phoenix Contact specifically points out that overvoltages can also enter inverter electronics through network or control interfaces and recommends considering surge protection for communication interfaces such as Ethernet, RS-485 and weather-station connections.

This is a useful reminder:

“My DC and AC sides both have SPDs” still does not necessarily mean every electrical path entering sensitive equipment has been considered.

Common Misunderstandings

Can I Simply Add More SPDs to Be Safe?

Nicht unbedingt.

Surge protection should be coordinated, not accumulated randomly.

Installing another SPD without considering:

• SPD type;
• voltage;
• installation point;
• conductor routing;
• earthing;
• protection level;
• distance;
• upstream and downstream devices;
• and manufacturer instructions

does not automatically improve the installation.

Imagine putting two Type 2 SPDs next to each other inside the same cabinet when the actual problem is a 40 m cable route from a remote PV array.

You have increased the number of SPDs.

But you may not have solved the real problem.

This is why good design starts with the system layout.

Do Not Forget SPD Wiring

Even a correctly selected SPD can lose effectiveness if its installation is poor.

During a surge event, connection conductors are not electrically “invisible.”

Long or unnecessarily looped conductors add inductive voltage.

This means two systems can use exactly the same SPD but achieve different real protection performance.

Installation A

SPD located close to the protected equipment with short, direct conductors.

Installation B

Same SPD, but connected through long looping conductors inside the cabinet.

The product label is identical.

The installation is not.

This is why selecting a device only by looking at:

1000 V

20 kA

40 kA

is incomplete.

The SPD and its installation must work together.

Before Buying Another SPD: Check These 7 Things

This is the checklist worth saving.

If you can provide these seven pieces of information, an installer or SPD supplier can give you a much more useful answer.

A Simple Decision Flow

Step 1 — Does the inverter have a clearly specified DC SPD?

Nein

Evaluate DC-side surge protection for the PV installation.

Ja

Continue to Step 2.

Step 2 — What type is it?

Check:

Typ 1

Typ 2

oder

Typ 1+2

Do not guess from the size of the inverter.

Use the actual datasheet.

Step 3 — Where is it installed?

If it is built into the inverter, you have a protection point at the inverter.

Now look at the rest of the DC cable route.

Step 4 — How far is the PV array from the inverter?

If the cable route is short, check the inverter instructions and applicable installation requirements before adding another device.

If the cable route is long, evaluate whether another coordinated protection point is required closer to the PV array or combiner box.

Published PV guidance from Phoenix Contact and DEHN specifically treats longer cable distances as a reason to consider protection at additional locations.

Step 5 — Is external lightning protection installed?

Nein

Continue with the applicable surge-protection design for the PV installation.

Ja

Check whether the required separation distance can be maintained.

If it cannot, Type 1 protection may become relevant at the applicable installation points.

Step 6 — Is another SPD already installed?

Check:

• PV combiner box;
• array-side protection enclosure;
• inverter DC protection box;
• main distribution;
• AC distribution;
• building entry point.

Do not add products based on assumptions.

Check the actual system.

Real Example: Same Manufacturer, Different Answer

This is perhaps the easiest way to understand why checking the exact model matters.

Consider two real Sungrow inverter families.

Sungrow SG3.0RS-L

The current official product page states:

Built-in Type II DC & AC SPD.

Now consider:

Sungrow SG30CX-P2 / SG50CX-P2

The official datasheet specifies:

DC Type I+II / AC Type II.

Both products are Sungrow inverters.

Both include surge protection.

But the published DC SPD configuration is not the same.

That alone shows why questions such as:

“Does a Sungrow inverter already have an SPD?”

are too broad.

The correct question is:

“Which Sungrow model, and what does its datasheet specify?”

The same principle applies to other manufacturers.

What Information Should You Send an SPD Supplier?

If you are a purchaser, distributor or project buyer, you do not need to design the complete lightning protection system yourself.

But sending the correct information can dramatically improve the quality of the recommendation you receive.

Instead of sending:

“Need 1000V 40kA SPD. Please quote.”

send:

PV system information

• Maximale PV-Systemspannung
• Maximum string Voc if available
• Inverter brand and model
• Built-in SPD specification
• Approximate PV-to-inverter cable distance
• Combiner box information
• External lightning protection: yes/no
• Required SPD installation position
• Menge
• Applicable standard or project requirement

Why is this better?

Because:

1000V + 40kA

does not tell the supplier whether the SPD is intended:

• near the inverter;
• in a combiner box;
• near the array;
• in a system with external lightning protection;
• or as part of a Type 1+2 protection concept.

A specification is useful only when it is connected to an application.

FAQ

1. My inverter already has a DC Type 2 SPD. Do I always need another external SPD?

Nein.

The correct decision depends on the complete installation.

Cable distance, SPD location, combiner-box configuration, external lightning protection, separation distance and manufacturer requirements should all be considered.

Do not automatically add another SPD, but do not automatically remove external protection simply because the inverter includes one.

2. If the inverter and PV array are more than 10 m apart, do I always need exactly two SPDs?

Do not treat the number as an isolated universal rule.

However, 10 m is an important design threshold in published PV surge-protection guidance.

Phoenix Contact identifies additional DC-side protection locations where the distance between the inverter and PV panels is 10 m or more, while DEHN likewise identifies additional protection on longer cable routes in its rooftop PV guidance.

Use the distance as a reason to evaluate the system—not as a substitute for engineering judgment or applicable requirements.

3. Does an AC Type 2 SPD inside the inverter protect the DC side?

Nein.

AC and PV DC are separate electrical paths.

Check the datasheet specifically for DC SPD, PV SPD, or the manufacturer’s equivalent terminology.

4. Is Type 1+2 always better than Type 2?

Not simply because it sounds like a higher number.

Type 1+2 and Type 2 are intended for different surge and lightning-protection conditions.

For example, Phoenix Contact’s PV guidance differentiates SPD type according to whether external lightning protection is present and whether separation distance is maintained.

Select the appropriate type for the installation rather than choosing by label alone.

5. If my combiner box already has an SPD, do I still need the inverter’s built-in SPD?

Possibly.

The two devices may be protecting different points along a longer cable route.

This is exactly why you should evaluate the distance and location relationship rather than asking which one of the two devices is unnecessary.

6. Can a built-in inverter SPD fail?

Ja.

SPDs are protective components and can reach end of life after electrical stress.

Fronius, for example, documents a mechanical status indication that changes from green to red when its SPD is triggered and states that the SPD should then be replaced to maintain protection.

Always follow the inverter manufacturer’s inspection and replacement instructions.

7. What if the inverter datasheet only says “surge protection”?

Look deeper into the technical documentation.

Try to confirm:

• DC or AC side;
• SPD type;
• relevant voltage rating;
• discharge characteristics;
• replaceability;
• and whether the function is standard or optional.

Do not assume that every use of the phrase “surge protection” describes the same device.

The Most Important Lesson: Stop Looking Only at the Inverter

It is natural to focus on the inverter.

It is one of the most valuable and technically complex components in a PV system.

But a solar installation is larger than the inverter.

Think about the complete path:

PV-Module

↓

DC string cables

↓

combiner or protection equipment

↓

long DC cable route

↓

inverter DC input

↓

inverter

↓

AC output

↓

distribution system

and possibly:

Ethernet / RS-485 / monitoring / control lines

A solar inverter built-in SPD sits at one protection point within this larger system. It should therefore be evaluated together with the PV cables, combiner equipment, AC side and other relevant protection locations.

That is why the best question is not:

“How many SPDs do I have?”

Sie lautet:

“Where can transient overvoltage enter this system, and where should it be limited before it reaches sensitive equipment?”

Once you start thinking this way, the confusing question of “internal SPD versus external SPD” becomes much easier.

They are not necessarily competitors.

They may be parts of the same coordinated protection concept.

Final Takeaway

Seeing:

“DC SPD Type II Built-In”

on an inverter datasheet is useful information.

But it is not the end of your surge-protection assessment.

Before deciding whether an external SPD is necessary, check four things first:

1. What SPD is actually built into the inverter?

DC, AC, Type 1, Type 2 or Type 1+2?

2. Where is it?

A built-in SPD provides a protection point at the inverter. Consider what exists between that point and the PV array.

3. How long is the cable route?

Cable distance can change whether another protection location needs to be evaluated.

4. Is external lightning protection involved?

If yes, the lightning protection concept and separation distance become important.

If you can answer these four questions, you are already making a much better decision than someone who simply reads:

“Built-in SPD”

and stops there.

And if terms such as Ucpv, In, Imax, Up and Iscpv still look confusing, learn how to read the SPD label before comparing different devices.

Related Guide: How to Read a DC SPD Label: Class II, Ucpv, In, Imax, Up & Iscpv Explained

Need Help Checking a PV SPD Application?

KUANGYA manufactures surge protective devices for photovoltaic DC applications.

If you are unsure which SPD configuration fits your project, you can provide:

• PV system voltage;
• inverter brand and model;
• existing built-in SPD information;
• cable distance;
• intended installation position;
• required SPD type, if specified;
• and project quantity.

This allows the application to be checked before selecting a specification based only on voltage and kA values.